Order of Battle.In ancient times the Romans fought in the manner of the Greek phalanx, in a solid square. This arrangement was well suited to withstand an attack on a level plain, but it was not adapted to aggressive warfare. About the time of Camillus, the Romans introduced the more open order of “maniples.” When drawn up in order of battle, the legion was arranged in three lines: first, the hastati, made up of young men; second, the principes, composed of the more experienced soldiers; and third, the triarii, which comprised the veterans, capable of supporting the other two lines. Each line was composed of ten maniples, those of the first two lines consisting of one hundred and twenty men each, and those of the third line consisting of sixty men each; the maniples, or companies, in each line were so arranged that they were opposite the spaces in the next line, as follows:
1. Hastati |
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2. Principes |
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3. Triarii |
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This arrangement enabled the companies in front to retreat into the spaces in the rear, or the companies in the rear to advance to the spaces in front. Behind the third line usually fought the light-armed and less experienced soldiers (rorarii and accensi). Each maniple carried its own ensign; and the legion carried a standard surmounted with a silver eagle.
Armor and Weapons.The defensive armor of all the three lines was alikea coat of mail for the breast, a brass helmet for the head, greaves for the legs, and a large oblong shield carried upon the left arm. For offensive weapons, each man carried a short sword, which could be used for cutting or thrusting. The soldiers in the first two lines each had also two javelins, to be hurled at the enemy before coming into close quarters; and those of the third line each had a long lance, which could be used for piercing. It was with such arms as these that the Roman soldiers conquered Italy.
Military Rewards and Honors.The Romans encouraged the soldiers with rewards for their bravery. These were bestowed by the general in the presence of the whole army. The highest individual reward was the “civic crown,” made of oak leaves, given to him who had saved the life of a fellow-citizen on the battlefield. Other suitable rewards, such as golden crowns, banners of different colors, and ornaments, were bestowed for singular bravery. When a general slew the general of the enemy, the captured spoils (spolia opima) were hung up in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius. The highest military honor which the Roman state could bestow was a triumph,a solemn procession, decreed by the senate, in which the victorious general, with his army, marched through the city to the Capitol, bearing in his train the trophies of war.
Military Roads.An important part of the military system of Rome was the network of military roads by which her armies and munitions of war could be sent into every part of Italy. The first military road was the Appian Way (via Appia), built by Appius Claudius during the Samnite wars. It connected Rome with Capua, and was afterward extended to Beneventum and Venusia, and finally as far as Brundisium. This furnished a model for the roads which were subsequently laid out to other points in Italy. The Latin Way (via Latina) ran south into the Samnite country and connected with the Appian Way near Capua and at Beneventum. The Flaminian Way (via Flaminia) ran north through eastern Etruria and Umbria to Ariminum. From this last-mentioned place, the Aemilian Way (via Aemilia) extended into Cisalpine Gaul as far as Placentia on the river Po. Another important road, the Cassian Way (via Cassia) ran through central Etruria to Arretium, and connected with the Aemilian Way in Cisalpine Gaul. Along the western coast of Etruria ran the Aurelian Way (via Aurelia). These were the chief military roads constructed during the time of the republic. So durable were these highways that their remains exist to the present day (see “special study,” p. 85).
SELECTIONS FOR READING
Merivale, Gen. Hist., Ch. 16, “Survey of Roman Institutions” (1)1
Mommsen, Vol. I., Bk. II., Ch. 7, “Union of Italy” (2).
Liddell, Ch. 27, “Settlement of Italy” (1).
Pelham, pp. 97-107, “Rome as Mistress of Italy” (1).
Leighton, Ch. 19, “Roman Supremacy in Italy” (1).
Taylor, Ch. 6, “Rome and Italy” (1).
Duruy, Vol. I., Ch. 17, “Organization of Italy” (2).
SPECIAL STUDY
ROMAN AND LATIN COLONIES.Shuckburgh, p. 164, note 2 (1); Liddell, pp. 254-257 (1); Arnold, Hist., Ch. 41 (2); Ramsay and Lanciani, pp. 118-120 (8); Harper’s Dict. Antiqq., “Colonia” (8); Niebuhr, Vol. III., pp. 240-252 (2).
1 The figure in parenthesis refers to the number of the topic in the Appendix, where a fuller title of the book will be found.